Children who spend much of their school day playing alone may not necessarily be lonely or unhappy, according to a new study from researchers at the University of Georgia in the United States.

The research suggests that some children simply enjoy their own company while maintaining satisfying friendships and a sense of belonging among their classmates. Researchers say the key factor may not be how often a child chooses to be alone, but whether they still feel connected to others.

The study involved 473 children aged between nine and 11 at several elementary schools in Georgia. Participants were asked to identify classmates who often played alone despite getting along with other students. They also answered questions about the importance they placed on belonging and their satisfaction with friendships and relationships within their classes.

Researchers found a clear difference between children who preferred solitude while still valuing social connections and those who placed little importance on belonging to a peer group.

Children who enjoyed spending time alone but considered belonging important generally reported being satisfied with both their close friendships and wider relationships at school. Researchers said these children may accept enough invitations to remain socially connected while choosing to spend some of their free time alone.

Rachael Pfanz, the study’s corresponding author and an elementary school psychologist, said these children can prefer doing their own activities without having difficulty getting along with classmates.

The findings were different for children who did not consider belonging important. They were more likely to report weaker relationships with friends and classmates.

Researchers warned that repeatedly turning down invitations can eventually affect a child’s social opportunities. Classmates may stop asking them to join activities, potentially leaving them with fewer chances to develop or maintain friendships.

Michele Lease, a professor of educational psychology at the University of Georgia and a co-author of the study, compared social interaction with other activities that benefit people even when they may not always feel like participating.

The researchers said adults should avoid assuming that every child who plays alone needs to be encouraged to join a large group immediately. Pressuring a child into a busy activity could make the situation uncomfortable rather than helping them build connections.

Instead, adults could introduce children to smaller groups or classmates who share similar interests. A child who enjoys drawing, reading, building or another individual activity may find it easier to connect with peers who have the same interests.

Pfanz said joining a large playground game, such as soccer, may feel overwhelming for a child who already prefers playing alone.

The researchers said the findings are particularly relevant to fourth- and fifth-grade students, a period when friendship groups become more established and children become better at recognising whether classmates are choosing solitude or experiencing social exclusion.

The study suggests that solitude itself should not automatically be viewed as a problem. What may matter more is whether children have meaningful relationships and continue to feel that they belong.

Maintaining healthy blood pressure, avoiding diabetes and not smoking during middle age may help people spend more years of their lives free from dementia, according to new research.

A study of more than 12,000 participants found that people without the three major vascular risk factors between the ages of 48 and 68 could gain nearly 13 additional years without developing dementia compared with those who had all three conditions.

The findings highlight the importance of managing cardiovascular health during midlife as researchers continue to examine ways to reduce the growing global burden of dementia.

Dementia affects millions of people worldwide, with about 10 million new cases diagnosed each year, according to the World Health Organization. The number of people living with the condition is expected to exceed 150 million by 2050.

Researchers are increasingly examining factors that can be changed earlier in life, including smoking, high blood pressure and diabetes, because these conditions can affect blood vessels and contribute to problems affecting the brain.

The study, published in Neurology Open Access, defined good vascular health as having no diabetes, hypertension or smoking history during middle age.

Researchers found that participants with all three risk factors faced almost three times the risk of developing dementia compared with people who had none of them.

At age 55, people with no vascular risk factors could expect to live an average of 30 more years without dementia. Those with one risk factor had an average of 26 dementia-free years, while people with two had about 21 years.

Participants with all three risk factors could expect just over 17 years without dementia. The difference between those with no risk factors and those with all three was therefore about 13 years.

The researchers said the results suggest that protecting vascular health during midlife could have a substantial effect on brain health later in life.

“Our findings argue that people need to actively avert these factors in midlife as a strategy for preserving brain health for more than a decade,” said senior investigator Josef Coresh.

The study also identified differences between men and women. Women generally had more dementia-free years than men across the groups. Among participants with all three risk factors, women averaged about 18 years without dementia, compared with 16 years for men.

The researchers said the findings reinforce the importance of preventing or managing high blood pressure and diabetes and avoiding smoking during middle age.

Coresh said the results could encourage people to pay closer attention to their vascular health from their late 40s onward, potentially helping them maintain cognitive health for longer as they age.

Wildfire smoke is becoming an increasing threat to pregnant women as climate change drives more frequent and intense fires, potentially undermining improvements made in air quality through reductions in pollution from transport and industry.

A new study published in Frontiers in Environmental Health examined exposure to fine particulate matter, known as PM2.5, from wildfires across the United States between 2003 and 2019. Researchers found that prenatal exposure to wildfire smoke more than doubled during the 17-year period.

The increase was particularly significant in western US states, where wildfire seasons have become longer and fires have grown more severe. Researchers found that wildfire smoke was responsible for about 65% of days when air pollution reached levels considered unsafe during pregnancy.

The findings suggest that progress in reducing pollution from human activities is being partly offset by emissions from wildfires.

“Increasing wildfire activity is systematically offsetting prenatal air quality gains,” researchers said, warning that the trend could place a disproportionate burden on low-income, rural and Indigenous communities as wildfire activity continues to intensify.

PM2.5 consists of microscopic particles that can travel deep into the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Exposure during pregnancy has previously been associated with health problems including premature birth and low birth weight.

Researchers also noted that particles produced by wildfires may pose additional risks because their chemical composition can differ from pollution produced by traffic and industrial activity. This could make wildfire smoke particularly concerning for people who are more vulnerable to air pollution.

The findings have implications beyond the United States, as Europe has also experienced increasingly severe wildfire seasons in recent years.

Countries including Greece, Portugal, Spain and France have faced major fires during successive summers, with smoke sometimes spreading across national borders. European climate and health authorities have warned that rising temperatures are contributing to conditions that increase the likelihood and intensity of wildfires.

The growing exposure has raised concerns about how public health systems can protect vulnerable groups as climate-related risks increase.

Experts say governments may need to strengthen guidance for pregnant women and other groups at higher risk from smoke exposure. Measures could include improved wildfire smoke forecasting, earlier health warnings and greater access to clean indoor air during periods of severe pollution.

The research highlights a challenge facing environmental policymakers. While decades of measures have reduced pollution from vehicles, industry and other human activities, climate change is creating additional sources of harmful air pollution.