People who smoke face a higher risk of developing dementia, Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia, with the risk increasing according to the number of cigarettes consumed each day, a major scientific review has found.

The study, led by researchers at Curtin University in Australia and published in the journal eClinicalMedicine, analysed evidence involving approximately 2.8 million people. It found that smokers had a 31% higher risk of developing dementia than people who had never smoked.

The increased risk was 40% for Alzheimer’s disease and 52% for vascular dementia, a condition caused by reduced blood flow to the brain.

The researchers also identified a relationship between daily cigarette consumption and dementia risk. People smoking 10 cigarettes a day had a 16% higher risk than non-smokers, while those consuming 20 cigarettes daily faced a 34% increase.

Lead researcher Mario Serfo said the findings highlighted the importance of considering smoking’s effects on brain health, alongside its established links to heart and lung disease and cancer.

He said the association became stronger as the number of cigarettes smoked increased, suggesting that heavier tobacco consumption was linked to a greater risk of cognitive decline.

Quitting may reduce the risk

The review found that people who had stopped smoking did not have a higher dementia risk than those who had never smoked. Their risk was also lower than that of people who continued to smoke.

The researchers cautioned that the findings do not establish that smoking directly causes dementia. However, they add to existing evidence suggesting that giving up tobacco may help reduce the likelihood of developing the condition.

Blossom Stephan, a co-author of the study, said the effects of smoking on brain health should receive greater attention in public discussions about tobacco use and the benefits of quitting.

The research team called for tobacco-control campaigns to address the potential impact of smoking on memory, brain function and cognitive abilities, rather than focusing mainly on the risks to the heart and lungs.

They also recommended adding brain-health warnings to cigarette packaging and including information about dementia in smoking cessation programmes. Such measures, they said, could help people better understand the wider consequences of tobacco consumption.

The researchers said further studies were needed to establish whether the age at which a person quits smoking and the length of time they remain tobacco-free influence their future dementia risk.

The findings add to the growing body of research examining how lifestyle factors may affect brain health as populations age and cases of dementia increase worldwide.

Children who visit parks regularly from birth to the age of 11 tend to have better mental health and social skills than those who visit less frequently, according to a new study published in the journal Epidemiology and Community Health.

Researchers found that children taken to a park at least once a week throughout this period scored an average of 16.5% higher in assessments of social-emotional development than those who visited less than once a week. The association remained significant after researchers accounted for factors including family circumstances and socioeconomic status.

The study involved 4,219 participants and examined social-emotional development, which includes the ability to manage emotions, form relationships, behave appropriately and deal with everyday challenges. These skills are considered an important foundation for mental health during childhood and later life.

Lead researcher Mark Ferguson of the University of Exeter said parks provide children with opportunities for physical activity and imaginative play, helping them develop confidence and independence.

“Parks give children space to be physically active, which is known to support mental and physical health, as well as helping adventurous and imaginative play to build confidence and independence,” Ferguson said.

He added that parks should be viewed as more than recreational spaces, describing them as an important resource for children’s healthy development.

The researchers found that children generally showed better social-emotional development during periods when they visited parks more frequently. Those with more regular visits across childhood also tended to have stronger outcomes than children who went less often.

The association covered several areas of behaviour. More frequent park visits were linked to improvements in internalising problems, including emotional symptoms and difficulties with peers. They were also associated with fewer externalising behaviours, such as conduct problems, hyperactivity and inattention.

Access to green spaces matters

The study also examined differences in park use across family backgrounds. Children living in more advantaged areas appeared to visit parks more frequently at younger ages, while those from less advantaged families tended to increase their visits as they grew older.

The findings suggest that accessible parks and playgrounds could help reduce inequalities in children’s development by providing opportunities for play and physical activity regardless of household income.

However, the researchers stressed that simply having parks nearby may not be enough. Their benefits depend on whether families can use them safely and comfortably.

Ferguson said communities needed good-quality green spaces that were safe, accessible and welcoming to families from different backgrounds.

Because parks are generally free to enter, they may also have what researchers describe as an “equigenic effect”. This refers to the ability of certain environments, including green spaces, to help narrow differences in health and wellbeing between socioeconomic groups.

The study highlights the potential role of public parks in supporting children’s development, while pointing to the importance of ensuring that all families have access to suitable outdoor spaces.

Falls remain a major health risk for older adults, but many people are unaware that factors such as anxiety, hearing loss and an urgent need to use the bathroom can increase the likelihood of an accident, according to a new survey by The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center.

The survey of 1,007 adults in the United States found that 63 per cent did not recognise fear or anxiety about falling as a risk factor. Another 60 per cent were unaware of the connection with hearing loss, while 74 per cent did not know that needing to reach a bathroom quickly could increase the chance of a fall.

Michelle Easley, a nurse practitioner at the medical centre’s Fall Prevention Clinic, said a previous fall was the strongest warning sign of another accident. She added that fear could make the problem worse by discouraging people from staying active, weakening their muscles and reducing mobility.

Ben Melancon, a former athlete now in his 70s, experienced this cycle after falling down stairs more than a dozen times. His final accident left him with an injury near his left eye that required nine stitches.

He said he had become extremely afraid of using the stairs. However, after attending a fall prevention programme, he regained his confidence and has not fallen since completing treatment.

The problem extends across Europe, where falls contribute to hospital admissions, disability and premature deaths among older people.

A factsheet from the European Association for Injury Prevention and Safety Promotion, known as EuroSafe, estimated that approximately 35,848 people aged 65 and over died from falls annually across the European Union, based on figures from 2010 to 2012.

Falls accounted for 58 per cent of injury-related emergency department visits among older people. Almost half of these attendances involved fractures, while around one in five involved head injuries.

The likelihood of hospital admission also increased with age. The factsheet estimated that 32 per cent of fall-related injuries among people aged 65 to 74 required hospital treatment. The proportion rose to 39 per cent among those aged 75 to 84 and 45 per cent among people aged 85 and older.

Falls are often caused by several factors acting together. These include poor balance, reduced muscle strength, impaired vision or hearing, chronic health conditions and medicines that can cause dizziness. Inadequate footwear and unsafe surroundings can also contribute.

The home is a particularly important setting for prevention, with EuroSafe estimating that 64 per cent of fall-related injuries occur there. Living rooms and bedrooms account for more than half of injuries inside homes, followed by bathrooms and stairs.

Specialists recommend strength and balance exercises, individual risk assessments, medication reviews and improvements to household safety. Removing loose rugs, improving lighting and installing suitable bathroom and stair supports can reduce hazards without restricting independence.

Melancon attended the Ohio State clinic several times a week for four months, working with a physical therapist and continuing exercises at home. He also switched to supportive athletic shoes.

He said he was no longer afraid of using stairs and encouraged other older people to seek help rather than allow fear to limit their daily activities.